The Hidden Costs: Life, Health, and Livelihoods in Malaysia's Charcoal Industry

The Human Cost of Charcoal

Worker Stories Daily Realities Health Toll Industry Paradox

Worker Stories Daily Realities Health Toll Industry Paradox

In Pixels of Dust

An interactive exploration of the lives, hardships, and hidden costs behind Malaysia's traditional charcoal industry.

"I want to buy land so my family and I can live more comfortably and I can watch my grandchildren play in the yard." - Sahitom Ahmad, Charcoal Worker

The Hands Behind the Heat

The charcoal industry is built on the resilience of its workers, many of whom are migrants who have spent decades in this arduous trade. Their stories reveal a complex tapestry of sacrifice, community, and hope.

Mr. Mustapa, 60

An Indonesian worker with over 20 years in the industry, he describes the work as "hard labor" amidst "heat, dust and smoke every day." Despite the conditions, he expresses gratitude for his health, a sentiment that highlights a profound normalization of the risks.

Mr. Nasaruddin, 64

Also from Indonesia, he has worked for nearly two decades separated from his family. He speaks of feeling "helpless" when loved ones fall ill back home, revealing the deep emotional burden that accompanies the physical toll of his labor.

Puan Zaniah, 62

A 30-year veteran of the industry, she works alongside her relatives. Her declaration, "The charcoal is our life," speaks to the intergenerational ties and lack of alternatives that bind families to this trade, even as she endures a persistent cough and back pain.

A Day in the Life: The "3D" Reality

The work is defined as "Dirty, Dangerous, and Difficult." From scorching heat to grueling manual labor, this section explores the daily environmental and physical challenges faced by the workers.

220°C

Peak temperature inside the kilns, creating an environment of extreme heat stress and burn risk.

20 kg

Average weight of a single sack of charcoal, which workers aim to fill 10-15 times per day by hand.

21 Days

The minimum cycle for one batch: 14 days of continuous burning followed by 7 days of cooling.

The 21-Day Production Cycle

1

Stacking

Logs are manually cut and meticulously stacked inside the brick kilns.

2

Burning

Kilns are sealed and heated for 14 days straight, requiring 24/7 monitoring.

3

Cooling

The charcoal must cool for another 7 days. Opening too soon risks explosions.

4

Packing

Workers rake, sift, and bag the finished product entirely by hand.

The Hidden Toll on Health

Constant exposure to heat, smoke, and dust, combined with heavy manual labor, leads to a wide range of severe health problems. Click on a category in the chart to explore the specific risks.

Select a category

Detailed information about the selected health risk category will appear here.

The Industry Paradox

Though labeled a "sunset industry" in decline domestically, Malaysia's traditional charcoal production is sustained by strong international demand for its high-quality product, creating a complex economic reality.

A Global Player

As of April 2025, Malaysia remains a significant global exporter of charcoal.

The Perception Gap

A critical finding is the stark contrast between the scientifically proven dangers of the work and the workers' own perception of their health. This normalization of risk poses a major barrier to improving safety and health outcomes.

The Worker's Voice

"Alhamdulillah (Thank God), none of us have ever gotten sick, even though we work in a place full of smoke, heat and dust."

- Mr. Mustapa

The Medical Reality

Exposure is linked to COPD, lung cancer, silicosis, CO poisoning, cardiovascular disease, and DNA damage.

This interactive report is based on the article "In Pixels: Malaysia's charcoal workers who risk life and health to do the work shunned by most" and associated research.

Created to raise awareness about the human element behind industrial processes.

 

The Hidden Costs: Life, Health, and Livelihoods in Malaysia's Charcoal Industry

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the challenging conditions faced by charcoal workers in Malaysia, focusing on the significant health and safety risks, the socio-economic factors that compel individuals into this "3D" (dirty, dangerous, difficult) work, and the broader implications for the industry, environment, and policy. The traditional charcoal production sector in Malaysia, though a "sunset industry" in decline, continues to rely heavily on manual labor and a vulnerable foreign workforce, primarily due to persistent international demand for its high-quality product.

The daily realities for these workers involve extreme heat, pervasive dust and smoke, and arduous physical labor, leading to a host of acute and chronic health issues, from severe respiratory diseases to debilitating musculoskeletal conditions and physical injuries. A notable observation is the discrepancy between the objective scientific evidence of these severe health hazards and the workers' own perceived health status, often downplaying their ailments, which complicates effective health interventions.

Despite a robust and recently expanded Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), practical enforcement within this traditional, often informal, sector remains a significant challenge, creating a "regulatory gap" where legislative protections do not consistently translate into improved on-the-ground conditions. Environmentally, traditional charcoal production contributes to mangrove forest degradation and substantial air pollution, releasing harmful greenhouse gases and particulate matter. However, emerging sustainable practices, such as biochar production, offer a pathway for both environmental remediation and social empowerment through inclusive business models.

The socio-economic drivers are complex, with foreign laborers accepting these hazardous jobs due to limited alternatives and the perceived relative financial benefit compared to opportunities in their home countries, highlighting a "poverty trap." This report concludes that a truly "just transition" for Malaysia's charcoal industry necessitates a dual focus: promoting cleaner production methods while simultaneously ensuring comprehensive social protection, fair wages, and viable alternative livelihoods for the existing workforce. Without integrated policy interventions, environmental progress risks exacerbating social inequality.

1. Introduction: Malaysia's Charcoal Industry – A Sector of Enduring Hardship

1.1 Overview of the Industry's Historical Context and Current Status

Malaysia's charcoal production sector, historically vibrant in the early 1930s, has undergone a significant transformation, experiencing a steep decline in both production volume and sales revenue since the year 2000.¹ This downturn has led to its characterization as a 'sunset industry,' a term typically applied to sectors facing obsolescence and eventual market exit.¹ Despite this broader decline, specific regions, such as Matang, Malaysia, maintain a crucial role in the global charcoal trade. Matang alone accounts for 70% of Malaysia's charcoal exports, primarily destined for markets in Japan and Korea, where it is prized for its top quality, achieved through traditional production methods.¹ This enduring international demand for a niche, high-quality product highlights a complex market dynamic that contrasts with the industry's domestic struggles.

The persistence of traditional methods is a defining characteristic of this industry. Factories in Matang, some operational since 1940, rely on time-honored techniques involving hand-built brick kilns, eschewing modern electrical ovens or mechanized equipment.¹ This adherence to manual processes underpins the labor-intensive nature of the work, directly contributing to its classification as a "dirty, dangerous, and difficult" sector. As of April 2025, Malaysia maintained its position as the 17th largest exporter of charcoal globally, with exports valued at RM98.4 million.⁴ This statistic, while indicating continued economic relevance on a global scale, simultaneously underscores the paradox of an industry labeled as "sunset" yet still generating substantial international revenue.

1.2 The Nature of "3D" Jobs and Reliance on Foreign Labor

The inherent nature of charcoal production aligns squarely with the "3D" job classification: dirty, dangerous, and difficult. The intense physical demands and often low remuneration associated with these roles render them largely unattractive to Malaysian citizens.⁴ Consequently, the sector exhibits a profound reliance on foreign labor, with hundreds of thousands of migrant workers filling these positions across Malaysia's 3D industries.⁴

Many of these workers, such as Mr. Mustapa and Mr. Nasaruddin, are Indonesian nationals who have dedicated decades to this arduous profession.⁴ Pakistani immigrants also constitute a significant portion of this workforce.³ This demographic pattern points to specific migrant communities bearing a disproportionate burden of the hazardous working conditions. The continued operation of an industry deemed to be in decline, yet sustained by its export market and a vulnerable foreign labor force, presents a compelling paradox. While the term "sunset industry" suggests a sector on the verge of disappearing, its continued viability is critically dependent on external demand for its specialized product and the availability of a labor pool willing to endure conditions that local workers largely shun. This situation raises serious questions about labor ethics and the long-term sustainability of a model that relies on human hardship. Any policy interventions must therefore consider both the domestic challenges and the intricate international market dynamics that perpetuate these conditions.

2. Working Conditions and Daily Realities

2.1 Detailed Description of the Physical Environment

Charcoal workers in Malaysia operate within an environment characterized by extreme physical stressors and pervasive hazards. Daily exposure to intense heat, billowing dust, and thick smoke is a constant reality.⁴ The toll of this environment is immediately visible on workers, whose bodies are often covered in perspiration and surrounded by fumes emanating from the burning pits.⁴ Temperatures within the kilns can soar to 220 degrees Celsius, and even external surfaces reach dangerously high temperatures, posing significant risks of burns and heat stress to those working nearby.²

The broader factory environment is further described by "blazing sparks from the kilns and the stench from the surrounding swamp area".³ This combination of immediate physical dangers and chronic environmental discomfort contributes to the overall harshness of the workplace. A critical safety concern is the lack of adequate personal protective equipment (PPE); workers are frequently observed navigating the scorched grounds near burning pits either barefoot or with only flimsy rubber slippers, increasing their vulnerability to foot injuries from hot surfaces or accidental slips into the pits.⁴ The tropical climate of Malaysia, with its frequent rainfall, exacerbates these already challenging conditions. Rain intensifies the smoke, making breathing even more difficult, and transforms the ground into muddy sludge, rendering every step more arduous and increasing the risk of slips and falls.⁴ To cope with the relentless heat and sun, workers resort to rudimentary methods such as splashing water over their bodies and wearing hats, highlighting the inadequacy of formal heat management strategies.⁴

2.2 Manual Labor Processes and Long Working Hours

The production of charcoal in these Malaysian factories is an intensely manual and time-consuming endeavor. Every stage of the process, from the initial cutting and stacking of logs into the kilns, to the meticulous monitoring of the burning process, and finally, the raking, sifting, and bagging of the finished charcoal, is performed by hand.¹ This reliance on human power underscores the physically demanding nature of the work.

Workers typically labor for eight hours a day, though some shifts extend into the night, indicating long and often irregular working hours.⁴ The charcoal production cycle itself is protracted and requires precise management: logs are carefully stacked inside kilns, sealed to create an oxygen-deprived environment, and then heated for a continuous period of 14 days. Following this, an additional seven days are required for the charcoal to cool completely before it can be handled.² This extended process demands constant vigilance; firemen must ensure the flames are maintained 24 hours a day, with workers operating in three shifts to check temperature consistency and replenish wood every three to four hours.² This continuous monitoring highlights the high-stakes nature of kiln management, where slight temperature deviations can ruin an entire batch or even cause explosions.²

The physical exertion continues with the handling of the finished product. Workers aim to fill between 10 and 15 sacks of charcoal daily, with each sack weighing approximately 20 kilograms.⁴ The logistical challenges extend beyond the factory floor; transporting the raw wood from the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve relies on the natural tidal conditions of neighboring canals, with logs manually floated to the factory sites.¹ This intricate reliance on both human effort and natural elements further illustrates the unique and demanding operational environment of the industry.

2.3 Personal Accounts and Emotional Burdens

The personal narratives of charcoal workers vividly illustrate the profound impact of their labor. Mr. Mustapa, a 60-year-old Indonesian worker with over two decades of experience in the industry, describes the work as inherently "not easy," characterized by "hard labor" and an environment saturated with "heat, dust and smoke every day".⁴ These direct accounts convey the immediate and lived experience of enduring such harsh conditions.

Beyond the physical toll, the emotional burden on these workers is substantial. Mr. Nasaruddin, a 64-year-old Indonesian who has worked at a charcoal factory for nearly two decades, articulates the profound distress of being separated from his family in Lombok, Indonesia. He expresses feeling "helpless" when his loved ones fall ill back home, highlighting the significant psychological and social costs associated with migrant labor.⁴

Despite the evident hardship, some workers exhibit a deep-seated connection to their profession. Puan Zaniah, a 62-year-old woman who has spent 30 years in the industry, states with conviction, "The charcoal is our life" and "This is the life of our family".³ She often works alongside relatives, indicating a strong sense of community and intergenerational involvement that binds families to this trade, possibly due to a lack of viable alternatives.

This apparent acceptance or downplaying of severe conditions by the workers themselves suggests a profound normalization of hazardous working environments. Mr. Nasaruddin, for instance, notes that "enduring the tough conditions has become second nature".⁴ Similarly, Mr. Mustapa expresses gratitude, stating, "Alhamdulillah (Thank God), none of us have ever gotten sick, even though we work in a place full of smoke, heat and dust" ⁴, and Puan Zaniah claims she "can handle" her persistent cough and back pain.³ This seeming resilience, or perhaps desensitization, to the dangers could stem from prolonged exposure, a lack of comprehensive awareness regarding long-term health consequences, or a coping mechanism to mentally endure the daily grind. It also reflects the stark reality that, despite the inherent dangers, these jobs may represent the best available economic opportunity compared to prospects in their home countries or other alternatives. This normalization presents a significant challenge for external interventions aimed at improving worker welfare, as workers may not actively seek or comply with safety measures if they do not fully perceive the severity of the risks or the long-term impact on their health. This situation complicates accurate assessment of occupational diseases and the implementation of effective, worker-centric safety and health programs, underscoring the deep-seated economic precarity that compels individuals to accept and adapt to such perilous conditions.

3. Occupational Health and Safety Hazards

3.1 Analysis of Acute and Chronic Health Risks

Workers in Malaysia's charcoal industry face a wide array of acute and chronic health risks stemming from their daily exposure to a hazardous environment. The constant presence of "heat, dust and smoke" ⁴ is the primary catalyst for many of these health issues, visibly manifested in perspiration and pervasive fumes.⁴

Respiratory Hazards: The air is frequently laden with thick smoke and dust, particularly during tasks like sifting and sorting charcoal, which are identified as significant health hazards.³ Rainfall exacerbates these conditions, making the smoke "even thicker" and "harder to breathe".⁴ The charcoal production process, involving incomplete combustion, releases a complex cocktail of pollutants, including Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), and hazardous trace metals such as mercury, lead, and zinc.⁶ Respiratory effects are globally recognized as the most prevalent health outcomes among charcoal producers.¹⁰ Specific reported symptoms and diseases include a persistent cough ³, rhinitis, asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ¹¹, shortness of breath ¹¹, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, silicosis, kaolinosis, tuberculosis, wheezing, and sputum production.⁶ Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is directly linked to reduced lung capacity and chronic lung diseases.¹⁰ Critically, charcoal dust levels in production environments have been found to significantly exceed occupational exposure limits, with median levels in packing and weighing sectors reported at 27.7 mg/m3, far surpassing the US OSHA recommended limit of 3.5 mg/m3 for carbon-black-containing material.¹¹ Inhalation of large amounts of other gases (chlorine, fluorine, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone) and metal fumes generated at high temperatures (e.g., lead, mercury) also poses severe toxicity risks.⁶ Carbon monoxide, a byproduct of combustion, is highly toxic and can lead to oxygen starvation, with intense frontal headaches being a hallmark symptom of poisoning.⁶

Physical Injuries and Musculoskeletal Issues: The heavy manual labor inherent in charcoal production exacts a significant physical toll. Workers frequently experience persistent back pain ³, muscle soreness, and general exhaustion.¹⁴ Acute physical trauma risks include cuts, crushes, and lacerations of hands, as well as body wounds from handling logs and tools.¹⁰ Burns are a particularly common and severe hazard, with workers recounting incidents of slipping into burning pits.⁴ The muddy ground, especially during rain, increases the risk of slipping and makes every movement more arduous, contributing to physical burden and injury risk.⁴ The pervasive lack of proper protective equipment is a critical deficiency in worker protection.¹⁰

Heat-Related Illnesses: The intense heat from the kilns, with surface temperatures exceeding 595°F ⁶, combined with exposure to the blazing sun ⁴, can lead to thermal burns ⁶ and various forms of heat stress. Workers' reliance on splashing water to cool themselves highlights the severity of their heat exposure and the rudimentary nature of their coping mechanisms.⁴

Other Health Concerns: Beyond these primary categories, charcoal workers face a range of other health issues. Eye problems are common, including squinting from smoke ⁴, acute eye problems ¹⁵, and the long-term risk of cataracts due to prolonged exposure to infrared radiation from hot kilns.⁶ Skin irritation ¹³, dizziness, light-headedness, nausea, and general headaches are also frequently reported, indicative of poor air quality and heat exposure.¹⁰ The work is also associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, including elevated blood pressure and heart conditions ⁷, and even potential for DNA damage.⁷ While not directly linked to charcoal work in all provided data, the emotional burden of family separation ⁴ contributes to overall mental health challenges, which are recognized as a top health problem in Malaysia.¹⁶

3.2 Specific Safety Concerns Related to Traditional Kiln Operations

The traditional nature of charcoal production, particularly the construction and operation of kilns, introduces a unique set of safety concerns. Kilns are typically built by hand, often without formal architectural drawings, reflecting a reliance on traditional craftsmanship rather than modern safety engineering standards.²

A critical and continuous hazard stems from the necessity of maintaining the fire within the kilns for 24 hours a day. Even slight drops in temperature or, conversely, overheating, can lead to the ruination of an entire batch of logs or, more dangerously, cause the kilns to explode.² This highlights the constant, high-stakes monitoring required from workers. Furthermore, even a minor temperature slip can result in oxygen leaking into the kiln, igniting flames within and burning the wood, which not only compromises charcoal quality but also poses immediate fire hazards.³ Following the firing process, a crucial seven-day cooling period is required before the kilns can be safely unloaded.³ Premature opening during this phase can be extremely dangerous. Basic fire safety precautions, such as avoiding the storage of combustible materials near the kilns, are also critical given the high temperatures generated.⁶

The stark contrast between the objective scientific evidence of pervasive and severe health hazards linked to charcoal production (including respiratory diseases, cancers, physical injuries, CO poisoning, DNA damage, and cardiovascular issues ⁶) and the subjective perceptions of the workers themselves is a significant observation. Workers like Mr. Mustapa express a belief that they have not "ever gotten sick" despite working in hazardous conditions ⁴, and Puan Zaniah asserts she "can handle" her persistent cough and back pain.³ This discrepancy suggests a critical lack of awareness among the workforce regarding the long-term, insidious nature of their exposures, or it may be a psychological coping mechanism to endure their daily reality. This gap in perception also implies a significant underreporting of occupational diseases and injuries within the sector, making it challenging for health authorities to accurately assess the true burden of disease and allocate resources effectively. Addressing this perception gap is crucial for any efforts to improve occupational health and safety, as workers may not fully engage with or prioritize protective measures if they do not recognize the full extent of the risks.